Contemporary Islam (20th–21st Century)

Revival, Political Islam, and the Challenges of the Modern World

The 20th and 21st centuries represent a period of profound transformation in the Islamic world—marked by revival, resistance, reinterpretation, and ideological fragmentation. In the aftermath of colonial domination, the collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate (1924), and the rise of secular nation-states, many Muslims turned inward—seeking to restore Islam not merely as private faith, but as a complete and divinely revealed system encompassing politics, law, economics, and identity.

This era saw the emergence of distinct responses within the Muslim world, ranging from peaceful reformist movements to militant jihadist currents. What binds these currents together is a shared belief in Islam’s comprehensiveness (shumūl al-Islām) and its rightful centrality in guiding individual and collective life.

1. Islamic Revivalism and Political Movements

The Muslim Brotherhood (Founded 1928, Egypt)

Founded by Hassan al-Banna, the Ikhwān al-Muslimūn arose in response to British colonialism, moral degradation, and the erosion of Islamic authority. It was envisioned as a comprehensive Islamic movement (ḥarakat islāmiyya shāmila), seeking the application of Sharīʿah in all aspects of life: personal conduct, social order, political governance, and international relations.

  • Mission: To restore Islam as a holistic system (niẓām kāmil) rooted in Qur’an and Sunnah.

  • Method: Gradual reform through da‘wah (calling), education (tarbiyah), and political engagement—not immediate revolution.

  • Ideological Expansion: Later figures such as Sayyid Qutb radicalized this vision. In his seminal work Maʿālim fī al-Ṭarīq (Milestones), Qutb declared that modern secular regimes represent Jāhiliyyah—a return to the pre-Islamic state of ignorance—and must be opposed.

Qur’anic Anchor
Qur’an 5:44 – “And whoever does not judge by what Allah has revealed – then it is they who are the disbelievers.”
Frequently cited to argue that divine law (Sharīʿah) must form the basis of any legitimate political authority.

Tafsīr Reference: Ibn Kathīr emphasizes that to reject Allah’s legislation or prefer man-made law is kufr (disbelief), especially if done knowingly or out of arrogance.

The Iranian Islamic Revolution (1979)

In Iran, a different path unfolded under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who led the overthrow of the secular Pahlavi monarchy. Khomeini’s doctrine of Wilāyat al-Faqīh (Guardianship of the Jurist) asserted that qualified Islamic jurists must wield both religious and political authority until the return of the Twelfth Imām (in Twelver Shīʿism).

  • The Islamic Republic replaced secular legislation with Shīʿa fiqh derived from classical texts like al-Kāfī and rulings of scholars such as Shaykh al-Mufīd and al-Ṭūsī.

  • The regime positioned itself as anti-imperialist, championing Muslim unity and defending oppressed Muslims worldwide (mustaḍʿafīn).

Qur’anic Anchor
Qur’an 33:6 – “The Prophet is closer to the believers than their own selves...”
In Tafsīr al-Mīzān, Allama Ṭabāṭabā’ī argues this verse supports the theological continuity between Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the Imāms—whose spiritual authority justifies governance by the righteous jurist in their absence.

Salafi-Jihadi Movements (Late 20th Century Onward)

Certain militant currents—drawing on Salafī theology and the Wahhābī revival initiated by Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb—seek the violent re-establishment of the Caliphate. Their ideological model rests on Tawḥīd al-Ḥākimiyyah (monotheism in legislation) and Takfīr (excommunication) of regimes and populations deemed apostate.

  • Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and related groups claim modern Muslim rulers ally with Western powers, rule by secular law, and betray Islam.

  • These groups interpret Islamic sources to justify armed struggle (jihād), targeting both foreign occupiers and "apostate" regimes.

Qur’anic Anchor
Qur’an 60:4 – “There has been for you an excellent example in Abraham and those with him, when they said to their people: ‘Indeed, we disassociate from you and from whatever you worship besides Allah...’”
Cited to affirm al-walā’ wa-l-barā’ (loyalty and disavowal)—a key Salafi doctrine demanding separation from unbelievers and their systems.

Scholarly Caution:
Ibn Taymiyyah, while foundational to many Salafi ideologues, warned extensively against unqualified takfīr. In Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā, he emphasized due process, knowledge, and intent as conditions before judging disbelief.

2. Islamic Law in Modern Nation-States

Post-colonial Muslim states have adopted divergent approaches to Sharīʿah:

Islamic Legal Implementation

  • Saudi Arabia: Applies Hanbalī-based Sharīʿah in courts, including hudūd punishments (e.g., for theft, adultery).

  • Iran: Implements Twelver Shīʿa jurisprudence.

  • Pakistan: Enacted blasphemy laws based on traditional Hanafi jurisprudence.

  • Afghanistan (under Taliban): Claims to implement strict Sharīʿah without Western compromise.

Blasphemy:
Qur’an 33:57 – “Indeed, those who abuse Allah and His Messenger – Allah has cursed them in this world and the Hereafter…”

Apostasy:
Sahih al-Bukhārī 6922 – “Whoever changes his religion, kill him.”
Traditionally cited in fiqh to justify execution for apostasy (riddah)—though some modern scholars question its scope.

Fiqh Source:
All four Sunni madhāhib and the Jaʿfarī Shīʿa school historically upheld death as the legal punishment for adult, sane apostates after due process.

Secular or Hybrid Systems

Countries like Turkey, Tunisia, and Indonesia have adopted secularized or pluralist frameworks—sometimes retaining Sharīʿah in personal status (marriage, inheritance), while excluding it from penal or constitutional law.

These states face ongoing debates:

  • Should Islam be a source or the source of law?

  • Can democracy and Islam coexist?

  • Is Sharīʿah flexible enough to adapt to the nation-state model?

3. Modern Tensions and Global Debate

Freedom of Expression vs. Blasphemy

Controversies over speech—such as the Satanic Verses, Charlie Hebdo, or Qur’an burnings—have provoked global outcry. Traditional Islamic jurisprudence classifies insulting the Prophet as a capital crime in many schools.

  • Some defend this as protecting sacredness in Islamic society.

  • Others call for reinterpretation under modern international norms.

Gender and Reform

Women’s rights, veiling, and legal testimony remain debated:

  • Qur’an 4:11 outlines male-biased inheritance laws.

  • Qur’an 2:282 mentions two women as witnesses equivalent to one man.

  • Reformist scholars argue for maqāṣid al-sharīʿah (the higher objectives of Islamic law) to adapt rulings for justice and equity today.

Religious Pluralism

Qur’an 2:62 – “Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans – those among them who believed in Allah and the Last Day…”
Recognized by some as evidence of pluralistic salvation.

Qur’an 3:85 – “Whoever seeks a religion other than Islam—it will never be accepted of him…”
Understood by mainstream scholars as affirming Islam’s finality and supersession.

Historically, dhimmi status allowed Jews and Christians to live under Muslim rule with autonomy in exchange for paying jizya—a protection tax under Islamic sovereignty.

Conclusion: Continuity and Conflict

Contemporary Islam reflects both continuity with tradition and contestation in light of modernity. Movements like the Muslim Brotherhood, the Iranian Revolution, and jihadi Salafism demonstrate radically different responses to the crisis of modernity, all grounded—rightly or wrongly—in appeals to Islamic sources.

Meanwhile, ongoing struggles around law, pluralism, gender, and governance show that the role of Islam in public life is far from settled. Whether through peaceful activism, state power, or global debate, the question of how Islam speaks to the modern world remains central to 21st-century Muslim identity.

References and Further Reading

  • The Qur’an, translated by Sahih International

  • Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-ʿAẓīm

  • Al-Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Tafsīr al-Mīzān

  • Sahih al-Bukhārī, Hadith no. 6922

  • Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Kitāb al-Tawḥīd

  • Sayyid Qutb, Maʿālim fī al-Ṭarīq (Milestones)

  • Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad

  • Jonathan A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad

  • Noah Feldman, The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State

Note to Readers

If you believe this post misrepresents Islamic belief or misquotes sources, please provide specific evidence from the Qur’an, authentic Hadith, or respected classical or contemporary scholarship. This blog values critical yet fair engagement grounded in primary sources.

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