Why Did the Rightly Guided Caliphs Fight?

Understanding the First Fitnah in Light of Islamic Tradition

The first generations of Islam, known as the Salaf, are often portrayed as paragons of piety, unity, and unshakable brotherhood. Yet, within thirty years of the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ passing, some of his closest companions found themselves on opposing sides of violent conflict.

To the modern mind, this might seem like a contradiction. How could those taught by the Prophet himself—those promised Paradise—engage in civil strife? The answer, according to the Qur’an, authentic Hadith, and Sunni scholarship, lies in understanding the events not as treachery, but as fitnah (trial), where sincere companions acted based on ijtihād (independent reasoning), sometimes reaching different conclusions.

This is the standard Islamic narrative, presented with traditional sources and without critique or revisionism.

Who Were the Rightly Guided Caliphs?

The Prophet ﷺ foretold:

“The Caliphate will last thirty years after me, then there will be kingship.”
— Sunan Abī Dāwūd, 4646

These thirty years are known as the Rāshidūn period, marked by the rule of the Khulafāʾ al-Rāshidūn (“Rightly Guided Caliphs”):

  1. Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq (r. 632–634 CE)

  2. ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (r. 634–644 CE)

  3. ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (r. 644–656 CE)

  4. ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (r. 656–661 CE)

All four are considered among the greatest of the ṣaḥābah (companions), praised in both the Qur’an and Sunnah. They are believed to have led with sincerity, even amid great trials.

Abū Bakr: Preserving Unity Through the Wars of Apostasy

Immediately after the Prophet ﷺ passed away in 632 CE, a crisis struck the Muslim community. Several Arab tribes rebelled, claiming their allegiance had been personal to Muhammad and not to Islam as a system.

Some refused to pay zakāt (obligatory charity), while others followed false prophets like Musaylimah al-Kadhdhāb, Sajāḥ, and Tulayḥah al-Asadī.

Despite initial objections from senior companions like ʿUmar, Caliph Abū Bakr declared:

“By Allah, I will fight those who differentiate between prayer and zakāt. Zakāt is the right of wealth. By Allah, if they withhold even a rope used to tie a camel that they used to give the Prophet, I will fight them for it.”
— Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 1399

The Ridda Wars that followed were not internal civil wars, but military campaigns against secession and false prophethood. They reestablished unity and reaffirmed that Islam was not negotiable or tribal—it was the religion of Allah.

These victories paved the way for the later expansion of Islam into Persia, the Levant, and Egypt.

ʿUmar: Expansion and Governance

ʿUmar’s caliphate (634–644 CE) witnessed unprecedented military and political growth. Under his rule:

  • The Sassanid Empire was fully conquered.

  • The Byzantine Empire lost much of its territory in Syria and Egypt.

  • Administrative institutions like the dīwān (register), bayt al-māl (public treasury), and Islamic judiciary were established.

ʿUmar was a man of immense justice and discipline. The Prophet ﷺ once said:

“If there were to be a prophet after me, it would be ʿUmar.”
— Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī, 3686

Despite his success, ʿUmar was assassinated by Abū Luʾluʾah al-Majūsī, a Persian slave, while leading the Fajr prayer. He was buried next to the Prophet ﷺ and Abū Bakr.

ʿUthmān: Expansion, Standardization, and Controversy

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān’s caliphate saw:

  • The completion of the codification of the Qur’an into a standard Mushaf, based on the dialect of Quraysh (now known as the ʿUthmānī Muṣḥaf).

  • Vast territorial expansion from North Africa to Central Asia.

However, his administration faced growing dissent. Accusations were leveled against certain Umayyad governors, especially al-Walīd ibn ʿUqbah in Kufa and ʿAbdullāh ibn Sabaʾ stirred rebellion in Egypt.

Though ʿUthmān replaced or reprimanded some officials, tensions escalated. In 656 CE, rebels from Egypt and Iraq surrounded his home in Medina. Despite calls from ʿAlī, Ṭalḥah, and others to defend himself, ʿUthmān refused to spill Muslim blood.

He was martyred while reciting the Qur’an:

“So Allah will suffice you against them. And He is the Hearing, the Knowing.”
— Qur’an 2:137

Sunnis consider his death a tragic injustice. The perpetrators acted without legitimate authority and brought great fitnah upon the ummah.

ʿAlī: The Divided Ummah and the First Fitnah

Following ʿUthmān’s death, the people of Medina turned to ʿAlī, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet ﷺ. Many companions pledged allegiance to him.

But Muʿāwiyah, governor of Syria and cousin of ʿUthmān, refused to recognize ʿAlī until the caliph punished ʿUthmān’s killers. Due to political chaos and infiltration of rebel factions, ʿAlī chose to stabilize the situation before pursuing justice.

This led to two major battles:

1. The Battle of the Camel (656 CE)

ʿĀʾishah, the Prophet’s widow, along with Ṭalḥah and al-Zubayr, set out to Basra to demand justice for ʿUthmān. Their goal was not to overthrow ʿAlī, but to raise public awareness.

Unfortunately, mutual suspicion and the meddling of ʿUthmān’s murderers sparked a full-blown battle.

Thousands of Muslims died. Ṭalḥah and al-Zubayr were martyred. ʿĀʾishah was escorted safely back to Medina by ʿAlī himself, with dignity and honor.

Sunni scholars stress that both camps were sincere:

“ʿĀʾishah, Ṭalḥah, and al-Zubayr made ijtihād. If they were correct, they get two rewards; if mistaken, they still receive one.”
— Ibn Kathīr, al-Bidāyah wa al-Nihāyah

2. The Battle of Ṣiffīn (657 CE)

This battle pitted ʿAlī’s army against Muʿāwiyah’s Syrian forces. When ʿAlī’s army seemed poised to win, Muʿāwiyah’s soldiers raised Qur’ans on their spears, calling for arbitration.

Despite protests from ʿAlī’s loyalists, he accepted arbitration, seeking to prevent Muslim bloodshed. This arbitration failed to resolve the issue and ultimately led to further division.

The Khawārij and the Death of ʿAlī

A faction of ʿAlī’s supporters—later called the Khawārij—accused both ʿAlī and Muʿāwiyah of disbelief for accepting arbitration. They rebelled violently.

ʿAlī fought and defeated them at Nahrawān. But in 661 CE, one of their members, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muljam, assassinated ʿAlī while he led Fajr prayer in Kufa.

His death marked the end of the Rāshidūn era.

Sunni Interpretation: All Were People of Ijtihād

Classical Sunni creed holds:

  • All the companions are just and righteous.

  • Disagreements arose from ijtihād, not malice or disbelief.

  • We do not curse or condemn any companion.

Ibn Taymiyyah states:

“We refrain from speaking ill of any companion. We say: they are our predecessors, and they differed only in ijtihād.”
— Minhāj al-Sunnah

Imām al-Nawawī adds:

“It is impermissible to curse the companions. Their disagreements were sincere and based on interpretation.”
— Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim

Conclusion: Trials of a Growing Ummah

The early conflicts among the rightly guided caliphs were not battles for power, but tragic consequences of differing judgments during an era of rapid expansion and immense responsibility.

Their legacy is one of integrity, sacrifice, and perseverance through fitnah. The Prophet ﷺ did not promise a smooth path, but he did praise those who would follow his way in times of trial.

“There will be tribulations. The one sitting will be better than the one standing. The one standing better than the one walking. The one walking better than the one running...”
— Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3601

The standard Islamic narrative teaches us to honor all the companions, to avoid speaking ill of any, and to remember that even righteous men can disagree—without losing their righteousness.


Have I Misrepresented Anything?

If you're a Muslim reader or scholar and believe that any of the above misrepresents Islamic belief, feel free to respond — but please provide references from the Qur’an, authentic hadiths, or recognized Islamic scholarship. This blog is committed to accurate representation, followed by rigorous analysis.

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